This construction consists of two interdependent elements, nominal and verbal, which are in a predicative relation. The nominal element is a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the nominative case. The verbal element is participle I in any of its forms. The nominal and the verbal elements make a syntactical complex functioning as a detached adverbial modifier. Unlike the objective participial construction it does not depend on a verb:
John having left the room to ring for a taxi as arranged, Mary sat down again to wait for him.
The novel having been read, Jane (she) put it aside.
In a participial phrase the subject of the sentence is as a rule related both to the predicate verb and to the participle. In a sentence with a nominative absolute participial construction the subject of the sentence is related only to the predicate verb, and the nominal element is related to the participle.
The nominative absolute participial construction functions syntactically as an adverbial modifier: an adverbial modifier of a) attendant circumstances, b) reason, c) occasionally time.
a) Llewellyn looked through the window, his glance travelling towards the bridge.
Mabel hurried out of the car and walked away, tears streaming down her face.
We were both standing leaning against the mantelpiece, she admirng her fan of blotting paper, I staring
A nominative absolute participial construction as an adverbial of attendant circumstances usually stands in postposition, and is widely used in literature.
It is translated into Russian by a coordinate clause: Мы оба стояли у камина; она любовалась веером из промокательной бумаги, а я глядел на нее.
b) But I was a little on edge, there being something to report.
The ship’s band did not play in the morning, it being Sunday.
c) The work being finished, the two girls went into the shop.
As well as in sentences with participial phrases causal and temporal meanings may be combined, as in:
Ice having thus been broken, the two former rivals grew still more affectionate.
Prepositional absolute participial construction with participle I
A prepositional absolute construction differs from a non-prepositional participial construction in that it is introduced by the preposition with. Its nominal part is usually a noun in the common case, or very rarely a personal pronoun in the objective case. It is not necessarily set off by a comma:
Andrew went into the house with his heart beating fast.
The main syntactical function of the construction is an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances, as in:
The officer sat with his long fine hands lying on the table perfectly still.
The meaning of attendant circumstances may be combined with temporal or causal ones:
I won’t speak with him staring at me like that.
Just now, with the harvest coming on, everything looks its richest.
It (St. John’s Wood) is ever so pretty with all the trees coming out.
The construction is usually translated into Russian by a coordinate or a subordinate clause, and sometimes by means of a prepositional phrase, or an adverbial participle (деепричастие).
(Когда) Эндрю вошел в дом, сердце его сильно билось (с бьющимся сердцем).
Теперь, когда приближается время жатвы, все так красиво.
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The Attribute is a secondary part of the sen-ce which modifies nouns, pronouns or any other part of speech that has a nominal character and gives them some kind of characteristic.
Ways of Expression
= an adjective: This big girl is very lazy.
= a pronoun (possessive, defining, demonstrative, interrogative, relative): I saw by their faces that they had learned new.
= a numeral (cardinal or ordinal): I borrowed two pounds from my brother.
= a a noun in the common case, used in pre-position: The village painter entered the pub.
b a noun in the genitive case (generally used in pre-position): Her father’s nerves would never stand the disclosure.
However, an attribute expressed by the preposition of + a noun in the genitive case is used in post-position: He would not see those friends of his ex-wife’s.
= a prepositional phrase: It was an act of despair on her part.
= an adverb in pre- or post-position: The after events shook the whole town. A voice was silent.
= a participle or a participial phrase: She saw the lighted windows of the cottage.
= a prepositional phrase or a prepositional construction with a gerund: She admired his way of doing things.
= an infinitive, an infinitive phrase or an infinitive construction in post-position: He is a man to rely on.
= a quotation group: I hate his “don’t-talk-to-me” air.
The Appositionis a peculiar kind of attribute expressed by a noun which explains and specifies the meaning of a noun by giving it another name.
= the close apposition is not separated by commas and stands in close connection with the word modified. It generally consists of the name of a person and a noun denoting relationship, or a geographical name and a common noun. Sometimes the apposition consists of the preposition of+noun: Aunt Ann was always ready to babysit for us. He lived in the city of London
= the loose or detached apposition is not as closely connected with the noun and is always separated by commas: I asked Miss Grey, a neighbour and an old friend of mine, to dinner.
The Object and Its Types
The objectis a secondary part of the sentence which modifies verbs, sometimes adjectives, words denoting state or nouns. It completes their meaning indicating the person, object or phenomenon which the action of the predicate verb affects.
= a noun in the common case: I miss the opera here.
= a pronoun (personal in the objective case, possessive, defining, reflexive, demonstrative, indefinite): We did not find anyone there.
Note 1. Sometimes the pronoun it is used as a real object: She pulled out a cigarette and let it dangle between her lips unlighted.
= an adjective or a participle: June always championed the unfortunate.
= an infinitive, infinitive phrase or an infinitive construction: It pained him to think of it.
= a gerund, a gerundial phrase or a gerundial construction: I remember going to the British Museum one day.
= any part of speech used as a quotation: He said “hush” several times.
= a prepositional phrase with a noun or a gerund: Do you object to my leaving you now?
= a syntactically indivisible group: She asked for a pinch of salt.
Types of Objects
Note2. There are a few English verbs which can have two direct objects: I asked him his name. Forgive me this question. She taught them French.
= the indirect object is a non-prepositional object placed between the predicate verb and direct object indicating the person who is the receiver of the object. It is used with transitive verbs which take a direct object: They offered Ed a new job.
Note 3. There are three verbs which may take an indirect object without any direct object: to read, to sing, to write: She often reads to me. Won’t you sing to me? Write to me as soon as possible.
As a rule, the indirect object comes before the direct object. However, when the direct object precedes the indirect object the latter is used with the preposition to and sometimes for. We use this structure, for example when we want to give special emphasis to the indirect object: I’ll give it to Mary, not Peter.
Note4. After such verbs as to announce, to ascribe, to attribute, to communicate, to dedicate, to dictate, to disclose, to explain, to interpret, to introduce, to point out, to relate, to repeat, to submit, to suggest the indirect object is used with the preposition to even when it comes before the direct object: The professor explained to us some difficult rules in French.
= the prepositional object does not always express the addressee of the action and is used mainly with intransitive verbs, as well as adjectives, words denoting state and nouns of verbal origin: He was afraid of dogs. I am uneasy about it.
Note 5. The direct and the prepositional object may be simple and complex. The complex object consists of two components forming an indivisible sentence unit: I saw Ann turn pale. I want you to come here.
= the cognate object is a special kind of object in English which is used with intransitive verbs though having no preposition; it is expressed by a noun of the same root or similar to the verb in meaning and is regularly attended by an attribute (to smile a sad smile, to laugh a bitter laugh, to die a violent death, etc.):They lived a simple life.
14)Parts of Simple sentence: Adverbial modifiers & their subclasses. Loose (detached) parts of the simple sentence.
The adverbial modifier is a secondary part of the sentence which modifies verbs, adjectives and adverbs and specifies the circumstances of a happening.
= an adverb: He’ll be here tomorrow.
= a noun with or without accompanying words: He walked miles to find the doctor.
= a prepositional phrase: He came here by taxi.
= a noun, pronoun, adjective, infinitive, participle, or prepositional phrase with a subordinating conjunction: When tired, he has his supper in his room.
= a participle or a participial phrase: Turning away, she caught sight of him.
=.a the Nominative Absolute Participial Construction: He burst in, the terror written on his face.
b the Nominative Absolute Construction: He stood, his eyes brightly proud.
c the Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction: He looked at him, with his whole face breathing short and quick in every feature.
d the Prepositional Absolute Construction: He rushed forward, with fury in his eye.
= a prepositional phrase or construction with a gerund: He left without speaking.
= an infinitive, an infinitive phrase, or an infinitive construction: I was too tired to go for a walk.
Date: 2016-03-03; view: 2370
A variant of the nominative absolute participial construction is seen in the prepositional absolute participial construction. It also consists of a noun in the common case (rarely a personal pronoun in the objective case) and a participle, joined by a predicative relationship, only in this construction the nominal element is introduced by the preposition with.
He rushed into the house with his heart beating fast.
The prepositional absolute participial construction is also used mostly in literary style.
The prepositional absolute participial construction commonly performs the syntactical function of an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances:
A black boy lay on the pavement, with his throat cut. (A black boy lay on the pavement, his throat was cut.)
It was a large room, with bookshelves covering most of the walls. (It was a large room, where bookshelves covered most of the walls.)
We jumped into the water with bullets whizzing past our ears. (We jumped into the water, bullets were whizzing past our ears.)
She stood with her arms folded, smoking, staring thoughtfully.
She went on reading with her eyes fixed on the pages of the book.
The boy stood with a finger stuck up his nose.
The meaning of attendant circumstances may be combined with the meaning of time or reason:
With prices going up so fast, we can’t afford luxuries. (Now, when prices are going up so fast, we can’t afford luxuries.)
I can’t do my homework with all this noise going on. (I can’t do my homework because/when all this noise is going on.)
Some other variants of the absolute nominative construction can be found in the case of the ellipsis of the participle:
A)The Absolute Nominative Construction with the Adjective
She stood under the tree, her head full of strange ideas. (She stood under the tree, her head was full of strange ideas.)(the adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances)
Her heart full of despair, she could not say a word. (As her heart was full of despair, she could not say a word.) (the adverbial modifier of reason)
The Prepositional Absolute Construction with the Adjective
She left the room with her eyes red. (the adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances)
B)The Absolute Nominative Construction with the Stative
The gallery door slightly ajar, I could hear the steps of the soldiers.
(As the gallery door was slightly ajar, I could hear the steps of the soldiers.) (the adverbial modifier of reason)
The fish attacked from below, its jaw agape. (the adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances)
The Prepositional Absolute Construction with the Stative
He stood there trembling, with his face ablaze. (the adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances)
C)The Absolute Nominative Construction with the Adverb
The lesson over, we went home. (When the lesson was over, we went home.) (the adverbial modifier of time)
The Prepositional Absolute construction with the Adverb
He turned away, with his hand still up. (the adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances)
Date: 2015-12-24; view: 4180
The Absolute Participial Construction may be introduced by the preposition with and is then called the Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction. It is in most cases used in the function of an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances.
This construction is rendered in Russian by a coordinate clause or деепричастный оборот.
They were walking on again, with Hugh calmly drawing at his pipe. (Lindsay) — Они снова шли вперед; Хью спокойно покуривал свою трубку.
The daughter sat quite silent and still, with her eyes fixed on the ground. (Dickens) — Дочь сидела молча и неподвижно, опустив глаза в землю.
Absolute constructions without a participle.
There are two types of absolute constructions in which we find no participle. The second element of the construction is an adjective, a prepositional phrase, or an adverb.
1. The Nominative Absolute Construction. It is used in the function 0f an adverbial modifier of time or attendant circumstances. In the function of an adverbial modifier of time this construction is rendered in Russian by an adverbial clause.
Breakfast over, he went to his counting house. (Ch. ВгоШё) — Когда кончили завтракать, он пошел в свою контору.
In the function of an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances the Nominative Absolute Construction is rendered either by a coordinate clause, деепричастный оборот, or a noun (pronoun) with the preposition c.
2. The Prepositional Absolute Construction. It is mostly used in the function of an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances. In rendering this construction in Russian a coordinate clause or деепричастный оборот is used.
I found him ready, and waiting for me, with his stick in his hand. (Collins) — Он был готов и ждал меня; в руке у него была палка.
Sikes, with Oliver’s hand still in his, softly approached the low porch, and raised the latch. (Dickens) — Сайке, все еще не выпуская руку Оливера из своей, подошел потихоньку к невысокому крыльцу и поднял щеколду.
§15. The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction and the Nominative Absolute Construction are separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma or a semicolon.
Mr. Tulkinghorn comes and goes pretty often; there being estate business to do. (Dickens)
Then he started out, bag and overcoat in hand, to get his cup of coffee. (Maltz)
Prepositional Absolute Constructions are usually separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma.
It was a balmy, radiant day, with the trees and grass shining exceedingly green after the rain of the night before.
He was there, writing busily at a distant table, with his back towards the door. (Eliot)
§ 16. The gerund developed from the verbal noun, which in course of time became verbalized preserving at the same time its nominal character.
The gerund is formed by adding the suffix -ing to the stem of the verb, and coincides in form with Participle I.
§ 17. The double nature of the gerund.
1. The gerund can perform the function of subject, object and predicative.
They say smoking leads to meditation. (Collins) (SUBJECT)
I like making people happy. (Shaw) (OBJECT)
The duty of all progressive mankind is fighting for peace. (PREDICATIVE)
2. The gerund can be preceded by a preposition.
I am very, very tired of rowing. (Hemingway)
3. Like a noun the gerund can be modified by a noun in the possessive case or by a possessive pronoun.
«I wonder at Jolyon’s allowing this engagement,»he said to Aunt Ann. (Galsworthy) — «Меня удивляет, что Джо/ион допустил эту помолвку», — сказал он тетушке Энн. Is there any objection to my seeing her? (Galsworthy) — Кто- нибудь возражает против того, чтобы я повидался с ней?
The verbal characteristics of the gerund are the same as those of the participle:
1. The gerund of transitive verbs can take a direct object.
I had now made a good progress in understanding and speaking their language. (Swift)
2. The gerund can be modified by an adverb.
She burst out crying bitterly. (Hardy)
Indefinite
writing
being wrtten
Perfect
having written
having been written
There is no gerund in the Russian language and the English gerund is rendered in Russian in different ways:
(a) by a noun.
(b) by an infinitive.
She had tea with Cipriano before leaving. (Lawrence) — Перед тем как уйти, она выпила чаю с Чиприано. It is no good hiding our heads under our wings. (Galsworthy) — Бесполезно прятать голову под крыло.
(c) by деепричастие.
And without waiting for her answer he turned aid left us. (Du Maurier) — И, не дожидаясь ее ответа, он повернулся и вышел.
On seeing Bella he stopped, beckoned her to him, and drew her arm through his. (Dickens) — Увидев Беллу, он остановился подозвал ее к себе и взял под руку.
(d) by a subordinate clause.
Не regretted now having come. (Galsworthy) — Теперь он сожалел, что пришел.
It should be observed that though the active forms of the gerund may be rendered in different ways, the passive forms are nearly always rendered by a clause.
§ 133. There are prepositional absolute constructions with participle I or II, with an infinitive, with an adjective, with a stative, with an adverb, or with a prepositional noun. All function mainly as adverbials of attendant circumstances, although sometimes they may be other adverbials. All of them can be transformed into clauses.
I. The prepositional absolute construction with participle I.
With his head aching from the slap of the bullet and the blood dripping over the ear, he went over to the
II. The prepositional absolute construction with participle II.
III. The prepositional absolute construction with the infinitive.
This construction is very seldom used.
IV. Prepositional absolute constructions with non-verbals.
1. The prepositional absolute construction with the adjective.
2. The prepositional absolute construction with the stative.
3. The prepositional absolute construction with the adverb.
4. The prepositional absolute construction with a noun.
The for-to -infinitive constructions
§ 134. The for — to -infinitive construction is expressed by a noun in the common case or a personal pronoun in the objective case and an infinitive with the particle to. It is introduced by the preposition for. The construction may function as different parts of the sentence:
It was practically impossible for them to meet anybody.
For one to spend a summer with them was a wonderful experience.
2. Predicative. The usual link verb is to be, although other link verbs are also possible.
That is not for me to decide.
What it all means remains for an expert to say.
3. Object. The construction can be used as an indirect non-recipient object of certain verbs (to ask, to watch) and adjectives (anxious, eager, impatient, sorry, willing, etc.).
I watched for him to appear through the bushes.
Everybody was impatient for the experiment to begin.
4. Attribute. In this function it modifies nouns or indefinite, negative, and universal pronouns.
She gave orders for everyone to stop packing.
There was nothing for him to say.
5. Adverbial modifier:
a) of purpose.
I rang for you to show the lady out.
Unlike the infinitive, the for-to -construction in this function can be placed only after the predicate.
b) of consequence.
The chance was too good for Jack to miss it.
The real cause of the explosion was evident enough for everyone to discuss it.
The gerundial predicative constructions
§ 135. The gerundial predicative construction is a predicative complex in which the nominal part is generally a noun/noun-pronoun in the possessive case or a possessive pronoun. Sometimes, however, it may be a noun/noun-pronoun in the common case or a personal pronoun in the objective case. The construction may function as different parts of the sentence:
1. Subject. It is used either with or without the introductory it.
Your doing nothing won’t help anybody.
Is it worth while your quarrelling all the time?
The only way out will be his taking the job.
3. Object. The construction may be either a direct objectto a verb or an indirect non-recipient object to a verb or adjective.
She liked his worrying about his wife.
He insisted on my claims being acknowledged.
4. Attribute. The construction is generally used with the preposition of, althougt other prepositions are also possible.
The prospect of someone else getting a job moved them to strong moral indignation.
a) of time.
After his being away for some time the crisis came.
b) of attendant circumstances.
The car slid away without my having to say anything.
c) of concession.
In spite of it being cold the bushes swarmed with insects.
In this function the construction is always introduced by a preposition.
THE COMPOSITE SENTENCE
§ 136. The composite sentence is a sentence consisting of two or more clauses. In its structure a clause is similar to a simple sentence, but unlike a simple sentence it forms part of a bigger syntactical unit.
Within a composite sentence clauses may be joined by means of coordination or subordination, thus forming a compound or a complex sentence respectively.
Coordination is a way of linking grammatical elements to make them equal in rank.
Subordination is a way of linking grammatical elements that makes one of them dependent upon the other (or they are mutually dependent).
1. The door of Henry’s lunch-room opened, and two men came in.
2. I have come to you, because I know from reading your accounts that you are Mr Sherlock Holme’s most
2.
I have come to
A compound sentence may contain coordinate clauses extended by subordinate clauses, and the resulting structure is a compound-complex sentence.
Pooh was very proud when he heard this, and he felt that Heffalump was as good as caught already, but
there was just one other thing which had to be thought about.
A complex sentence may contain subordinate clauses joined by means of coordination, the resulting structure being a complex sentence with homogeneous subordinate clauses.
I must impress upon you again that you are in a very great danger, and that the utmost frankness is
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE
§ 137. A compound sentence consists of two or more clauses of equal rank which form one syntactical whole in meaning and intonation. Clauses that are parts of a compound sentence are called coordinate, as they are joined by coordination.
Coordinate clauses may be linked together with or without a connector; in the first case they are joined syndetically.
Yesterday I bought a penny fiddle
And put it to my chin to play,
But I found its strings painted,
So I threw my fiddle away.
in the second case — asyndeticaily:
Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall,
Humpty Dumpty had a great fall;
All the king’s horses, and all the king’s men
Cannot put Humpty Dumpty together again.
Syndetic coordination is realized with a number of connectors — conjunctions, such as and, but, or, nor, for, etc., or with conjunctive adverbs, such as moreover, besides, however, yet, still, otherwise, therefore, etc.
In writing coordinate clauses may be marked off by a comma, a semicolon, a colon or occasionally a dash. Sometimes they are not separated graphically at all. In speaking they are separated by pauses.
A sentence may begin with a coordinating connector, but in this case the whole sentence is joined to the previous sentence in the text.
The first time Mrs. Moffat invited him to watch television with her, Simon declined. He would rather
read, he said. So she gave him books, she gave him classics. But the books he craved were garden books.
The second feature is that the clauses are sequentially fixed. Thus a coordinate clause cannot change place with the previous one without changing or distorting the meaning of the whole sentence, as in:
It was pitch dark, for the fog had come down from London in the night, and all Surbiton was wrapped in
However the change is possible if the clauses contain description. The third feature is that coordinate clauses, either opening or subsequent, may belong to different communicative types.
You may go, but don’t be late for dinner! (declarative and imperative clauses)
I had to leave at once, for whatever else could I have done? (declarative and interrogative clauses)
§ 139. From the point of view of the relationship between coordinate clauses, we distinguish four kinds of coordinate connection: copulative, adversative, disjunctive and causative-consecutive. The type of connection is expressed not only by means of coordinating connectives, but also by the general meaning of clauses conveyed by their lexical and grammatical content. This accounts for asyndetic coordination and for various uses of the conjunction and, when it expresses other relations — that of contrast or consequence.
§ 140. Copulative coordination implies that the information conveyed by coordinate clauses is in some way similar.
And is the conjunction most frequently used to realize copulative coordination. It may suggest mere addition.
Then she went home and wrote Brody a thank-you note for being so nice, and she also wrote a note to the
chief of police commending young Martin Brody.
The events described in copulative coordinate clauses may be simultaneous or successive.
The black Cadillac made its hunting sound through the night, and the tyres sang on the slab, and the black
fields stretched with mist swept by. (simultaneity)
The front door to the house opened, and a man and a woman stepped out on the wooden porch.
Occasionally the second clause may contain some commentary on the previous clause.
She was familiar with the petty social problems, and they bored her.
Owing to its vague copulative meaning the conjunction and may also link clauses with adversative or causative-consecutive connections. The meaning of the second clause is either contrasted to the first or contains its consequence.
Why were her own relations so rich, and Phil never knew where the money was coming from for to-
In sentences beginning with a verb in the imperative mood, the first clause implies a condition for the fulfilment of the action in the second clause.
The conjunction nor joins two negative clauses.
I didn’t recognize the girl, nor did I remember her name.
I not only remembered the girl’s name, but I also knew everything about her family.
The conjunctive adverb then joins clauses describing successive events.
We went along the street, then we turned to the left.
Copulative connection may also be expressed asyndetically, the clauses so joined may describe simultaneous or successive events.
Our Elsie was looking at her with big imploring eyes; she was frowning; she wanted to go. (simultaneity)
§ 141. Adversative coordination joins clauses containing opposition, contradiction or contrast. Adversative connectors are: the conjunctions but, while, whereas, the conjunctive adverbs however, yet, still, nevertheless, and the conjunctive particle only. Adversative coordination may also be realized asyndetically. The main adversative conjunction is but, which expresses adversative connection in a very general way. The clause introduced by but conveys some event that is opposite to what is expected from the contents of the first clause.
The story was amusing, but nobody laughed.
But may join clauses contrasted in meaning.
The English system of noun forms is very simple, but the system of verb forms is most intricate.
The conjunctions while and whereas specialize in expressing contrastive relations.
Peter is an engineer, while his brother is a musician.
Some people prefer going to the theatre, whereas others will stay at home watching TV programmes.
Contrastive relation may be conveyed by asyndetic coordination.
Two or three scenes stood out vividly in his mind — all the rest became a blur.
Among coordinative connectives the particle only is frequently used to join clauses with adversative connection, mainly in colloquial English.
There was an electric light, only Arthur had not switched it on.
You can join us at the station, or we can wait for you at home.
The correlative either emphasizes the exclusion of one of the alternatives.
Either listen to me, or I shall stop reading to you.
The clause introduced by or may express a restatement or correction of what is said in the first clause.
We were talking abouta lot of things, or rather he was talking and I was listening.
Coordinate clauses joined by disjunctive connectors may contain an implied condition, real or unreal.
Hurry up, or you will be late. (real condition implied) (If you don’t hurry, you will be late.)
If the first part is negative, the implied condition is positive.
Don’t be late, otherwise you may not be let in. (If you are late, you may not be let in.)
John is busy, otherwise he would be here. (unreal condition implied) (If John weren’t busy, he would be
John is busy, or he would have come. (If John were not busy, he would have come.)
John was busy last night, otherwise he would have come. (If he hadn’t been busy, he would have come.)
§ 143. Causative-consecutive coordination joins clauses connected in such a way that one of them contains a reason and the other — a consequence. The second clause may contain either the reason or the result of the event conveyed by the previous clause. The only causative coordinating conjunction is for.
The days became longer, for it was now springtime.
A causative clause may be also joined asyndetically.
At first I thought that they were brother and sister, they were so much alike.
The conjunction for is intermediate between subordination and coordination. It is most often treated as a coordinating conjunction, because its semantic application is to introduce clauses containing an explanation or justification of the idea expressed by the previous clause.
The land seemed almost as dark as the water, for there was no moon.
Sometimes the consequence may serve as a justification of the previous statement.
John must have gone, for nobody answers the call.
A for- clause differs from a subordinate clause of reason in that it never precedes the clause it is joined to. If a sentence begins with for, it means that the sentence is linked with the previous one.
When I saw her in the river I was frightened. For at that point the current was strong.
Consecutive connectives are conjunctions so, so that, and conjunctive adverbs therefore, hence, then, thus.
The weather was fine, so there were many people on the beach.
So that is a conjunction intermediate between subordination and coordination. When used after a comma in writing or a pause in speaking its connection with the previous clause is looser and it performs the function of a coordinating conjunction.
John is unlikely to come soon, so that we’d better go home.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE
§ 144. While coordination is a connection of two or more clauses of equal rank and function, subordination is usually defined as a non-symmetrical relation, that is, in a complex sentence with a minimal composition of two clauses, one is the basic element, whereas the other is a constituent or part of the first. The first one is called the main (or principal) clause, the second the subordinate clause.
Все неличные формы глагола способны образовывать предикативные конструкции, т.е. конструкции, состоящие из двух компонентов: именного, выраженного именем существительным или местоимением, и глагольного, выраженного неличной формой глагола — причастием, герундием или инфинитивом.
Оба компонента предикативной конструкции состоят в отношениях предикативности, которые напоминают отношения между подлежащим и сказуемым предложения и называются некоторыми авторами учебников по грамматике английского языка вторичной предикативностью. В большинстве случаев предикативные конструкции выступают одним членом предложения.
Поскольку глагольный компонент предикативной конструкции может быть выражен только неличной формой глагола, можно классифицировать все предикативные конструкции в соответствии с наполнением глагольного компонента следующим образом:
1. предикативные конструкции с инфинитивом;
2. предикативные конструкции с герундием;
3. предикативные конструкции с причастием.
Каждая из выделенных групп имеет дальнейшее подразделение в зависимости от лексического наполнения компонентов предикативной конструкции и синтаксической функции данной конструкции в предложении.
— трехчленная глагольная конструкция с инфинитивом (the Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction);
— субъектный инфинитивный оборот (the Subjective Infinitive Construction);
— инфинитивный оборот с предлогом for (the for-to-Infinitive Construction).
Данные русские термины не имеют общепризнанного значения, поскольку, во-первых, понятие предикативной конструкции рассматривается не всеми авторами учебников и учебных пособий по грамматике современного английского языка, а во-вторых, многие из ученых, затрагивающих данную проблему, указывают название конструкций на английском языке, без перевода.
Что касается более подробного рассмотрения предикативных конструкций с инфинитивом, хочется отметить, что мы выделяем этому вопросу отдельный параграф в своей работе, поскольку они являются предметом нашего исследования.
Предикативные конструкции с герундием в современном английском языке представлены лишь одной конструкцией, которую Берман И.М. называет «герундием с притяжательным местоимением или существительным в притяжательном падеже», но, на наш взгляд, их можно назвать герундиальными. Как видно из названия конструкции, предложенного И.М. Берманом, в составе данной конструкции герундий сопровождается именем существительным в притяжательном падеже или притяжательным местоимением. При этом между двумя компонентами предикативной конструкции возникают отношения вторичной предикативности.
Однако иногда именной компонент такой конструкции выражается именем существительным в именительном падеже, личным местоимением в объектном падеже или же местоимением, не имеющим категории падежа. В этом случае герундий называют полугерундием (half-gerund):
You must forgive me coming in such a late hour, Miss Marple, — said Elvira.
Предикативные конструкции с герундием и полугерундием могут иметь различные синтаксические функции, например сложного подлежащего, предикатива, дополнения, определения или обстоятельства:
Elvira was confused by Miss Marple observing her but she could do nothing about it.
There can’t be any objection to his seeing your room right now.
Предикативные конструкции с причастием подразделяются на:
— трехчленные глагольные конструкции с причастием I и причастием II (the Objective Participial Construction);
-субъектные причастные обороты (the Subjective Participial Construction);
-независимые причастные обороты (the Nominative Absolute Participial Construction);
-предложные причастные обороты (the Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction);
-независимые конструкции (Absolute Constructions without a Participle).
Полисемия и омонимия в современном английском языке.
